The Guinness Encyclopedia

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Notes about using the Encyclopedia, measures, editors, and contributors. The Guinness Encyclopedia is a completely new kind of single-volume encyclopedia. All other single-volume encyclopedias are arranged as A-to-Z listings, and so only give isolated snippets of information ╨ useful for looking up a quick reference or checking a fact, but not for giving a complete overview of a subject. The word encyclopedia is derived from the Greek for ╘general education╒, and it is a general introduction to all the main fields of knowledge that The Guinness Encyclopedia aims to provide. This aim is achieved by a thematic rather than an alphabetical arrangement: the world of knowledge is divided into twelve main sections ╨ the physical sciences, animals and plants, history, the visual arts, and so on. Each section is then subdivided into a series of in-depth articles on key topics. In this way, the Encyclopedia does not just list facts ╨ it explains them, and puts them in context. An equally important aim of The Guinness Encyclopedia is to provide stimulation and interest ╨ to embody the excitement of acquiring knowledge. To this end, the text is combined with a vast number of full-color illustrations ╨ photographs, paintings, maps, diagrams, animations, movies, pie charts and graphs ╨ all of which have been chosen for their ability to convey additional information. The Sections of the Encyclopedia The Guinness Encyclopedia is a network of knowledge, around which computer users will soon find their way. To start with, a quick glance through the Contents on the following pages will show the main sections of the Encyclopedia and what subjects fall under which heading. The first section, The Nature of the Universe, deals with the physical sciences ╨ astronomy, physics and chemistry ╨ together with mathematics. The earth sciences ╨ geology and physical geography ╨ are dealt with under The Restless Earth, while the life sciences are covered under The Living Planet and The Human Organism. The former section is concerned with broad biological topics such as classification, evolution, behavior, ecosystems and agriculture, and also provides extensive details of the main animal and plant groups. The latter section, focused on the human being, deals with anatomy and physiology, psychology, and medicine. The way human beings organize themselves is reviewed under The World Today, which not only includes sociology, politics and economics, but also discusses a range of important contemporary issues, such as the women╒s movement, the world╒s conflicts, and threats to the environment. Technology and Industry is concerned both with how things work and how they are made. Although the emphasis is on the latest developments, historical perspectives ╨ including details of key inventors ╨ are also given. A History of the World gives a broad overview of world history, from prehistoric times to the present. As with the sections on the arts ╨ The Visual Arts, Music and Dance and Language and Literature ╨ the emphasis is on Europe and America, although coverage is also given of non-Western history and traditions. Further details on the history of each of the world╒s countries will be found under The Countries of the World on Guinness 2 (see below). Religion and Philosophy discusses how human beings have attempted to make sense of profound issues outside the scope of science. As well as covering the main religious traditions of the world, the section also lists major philosophers and examines various central philosophical issues. The Countries of the World (on Guinness 2), differs from the Encyclopedia in that it is an alphabetical listing of all the world╒s sovereign states. The flag and a map of each state are included, together with basic statistics and details of government, geography, economy and history. How to use the Encyclopedia In the body of the Encyclopedia itself, the screens have color-coded outline boxes at the top left of the screen to indicate to which main section they belong. Each topic within every main section is presented on a screen, and on each screen there is a ╘See Also╒ box to guide the computer user to related screens in the same section or elsewhere. In highly interrelated subjects such as physics, cross-referencing is particularly important, as the full understanding of one concept may well depend on the understanding of other concepts dealt with elsewhere. For example, a fuller understanding of light ╨ which is principally dealt with under ╘Optics╒ ╨ will be gained if the reader also refers to the screens on ╘Wave Theory╒ and ╘Electromagnetism╒; those screens are also important to the understanding of ╘Quantum Theory╒ and ╘Atoms and Subatomic Particles╒. An index of the main subjects is found in the Subject Finder in the Explorer. All the main areas of knowledge are listed in alphabetical order to assist quick reference. MEASURES SI units ╨ SystÅme Internationale d╒UnitÄs ╨ are the most widely used units of measurement and are used universally for scientific and most technical purposes. SI is the modern form of the metric system, which is based on the meter as a unit of length and the kilogram as a unit of weight, and was first adopted in France in 1799. Other systems of units commonly employed include the British imperial system and the related US customary units. In the SI system there are seven base units, which relate to fundamental standards of length, mass, time, etc. Additionally, there are two geometrical supplementary units. The base units may be combined to form derived units; for example, the SI units of length and time may be combined to form units of acceleration or velocity, there are two geometrical supplementary units. The base units may be combined to form derived units; for example, the SI units of length and time may be combined to form units of acceleration or velocity. Further details on the more commonly used units will be found in the sections on physics and chemistry. SI Supplementary Units Quantity SI unit symbol Plane angle radian rad Solid angle steradian sr Named SI Derived Units Quantity SI unit symbol Frequency hertz Hz Force newton N Pressure pascal Pa Energy joule J Power watt W Temperature degree Celsius íC Electric charge coulomb C Potential difference volt V Electric resistance ohm W Electric conductance siemens S Electric capacitance farad F Inductance henry H Magnetic flux weber Wb Magnetic flux density tesla T Luminous flux lumen lm Illumination lux lx Radiation activity becquerel Bq Radiation absorbed dose gray Gy Additional SI Derived Units Quantity SI unit symbol Area square meter m2 Volume cubic meter m3 Velocity meters per second m s╨1 Acceleration meters per second m s╨2 per second Density kilograms per cubic kg m╨3 meter Mass rate of flow kilograms per kg s╨1 second Volume rate of flow cubic meters per m3 s╨1 second Multiples and Submultiples SI units are used in decimal multiples and submultiples of both the base units and derived units, for example 1 kilogram is divided into 1000 milligrams. Submultiple prefix symbol * 10╨18 atto- a * 10╨15 femto- f * 10╨12 pico- p * 10╨9 nano- n * 10╨6 micro- m * 10╨3 milli- m * 10╨2 centi- c * 10╨1 deci- d Multiple prefix symbol * 10 deca- da * 102 hecto- h * 103 kilo- k * 106 mega- M * 109 giga- G * 1012 tera- T * 1015 peta- P * 1018 exa- E Metric Conversions Length 1 mm = 0.03937 in 1 cm (10 mm) = 0.393700 78 in 1 m (100 cm) = 3.280840 ft (1 foot = 12 inches) 1 m = 1.09361 yd (1 yard = 3 feet) 1 km (1000 m) = 0.621371 1 mi (1 mile = 1760 yards) Area 1 cm2 = 0.155 sq in 1 m2 (10000 cm2) = 10.7639 sq ft (144 sq in = 1 sq ft) = 1.19599 sq yd (9 sq ft = 1 sq yd) 1 hectare (10000 m2) = 2.47105 acres (4840 sq yd = 1 acre) 1 km2 = 0.3861 sq mi (640 acres = 1 sq mi) Mass 1 gram = 0.035274 ounces (avoirdupois) 1 kilogram (1000 grams) = 2.20462 lb (16 oz = 1 pound) 1 tonne (1000 kg) = 0.9842065 tons (imperial) (2240 lb = 1 ton) = 0.8786 tons (US) (2000 lb = 1 US ton) Volume 1 cm3 = 0.06102 cubic in 1 dm3 (1000 cm3/1 liter) = 61.023 cubic in 1 m3 (1000 dm3) = 35.314 cubic ft EDITORS Astronomy Dr Patrick Moore Physics Dr John Warren, Brunel University Chemistry Dr D.M.P. Mingos, Imperial College Mathematics Dr J.M. Borwein, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia Geology and Physical Geography Dr Peter J. Smith, The Open University Life Sciences Professor Brian Gardiner, King╒s College, University of London Physiology and Anatomy Dr J.T. Fitzsimons, University of Cambridge Psychology Dr John Marshall, The Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford Medicine The late Professor J.R.A. Mitchell, University of Nottingham Sociology and Social Anthropology Professor D.A. Martin, London School of Economics (retired) Law and Crime Professor A.T.H. Smith Constitutional and Political Theory Professor G.W. Jones, London School of Economics Economics Peter Maunder, University of Loughborough International Organizations Professor Adam Roberts, University of Oxford Development Issues Professor A.J.R. Groom, University of Kent Technology and Industry Robin McKie, Science Correspondent, The Observer History Dr Tim Cornell, University College London Dr Colin McEvedy, author of The Penguin Atlas of History John Gillingham, London School of Economics Professor Matthew Anderson, formerly of the London School of Economics Professor Robert O╒Neill, All Souls College, Oxford Religion Professor Andrew F. Walls, University of Edinburgh Philosophy Dr Simon Blackburn The Visual Arts Dr Dominique Collon, The British Museum Paul Williamson, The Victoria and Albert Museum Dr Hugh Brigstocke, Sotheby╒s, London Professor William Vaughan, Birkbeck College, London Ronald Alley, formerly of The Tate Gallery, London Music Dr Raymond Monelle, University of Edinburgh Language and Linguistics Dr Noæl Burton-Roberts, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literature Bryan Loughrey, The Roehampton Institute, London Islamic Art and Literature The late Albert Hourani, Emeritus Fellow, St Antony╒s College, Oxford CONTRIBUTORS AB Antonia BostrÜm AF Andrew Frankel, Autocar Magazine AJ Ann Jones, South Bank Centre AM Angeli Mehta AP Antony Preston AR Aileen Reid AS Andrew Scott, University College London ASp Andi Spicer AT Professor Anthony K. Thorlby AW Professor Andrew F. Walls, University of Edinburgh BB Ben Barkow BBo Professor Brian Bocking, Bath College of Higher Education BG Professor Brian Gardiner, King╒s College, University of London BH The late Dr Beverly Halstead, University Reading BL Dr Bryan Lowes, University of Bradford BND Dr Brian N. Davies, The Royal Hospital, St Bartholomew╒s BNF British Nutrition Foundation (Anne Halliday now Anne de la Hunty of the Department of Health) BO╒L Dr Brendan O╒Leary, London School of Economics BS Brian Stone, The Open University (retired) CB Professor Charles G.D. Brook, The University College London Hospitals CBe Dr Clio Bellenis CE Colin Egan, University of Warwick CM Carol Michaelson CP Dr Christopher Pass, University of Bradford CS Dr Christopher Storrs CTG Catherine T. Gray CW Conrad Wilson DC Dr Dominique Collon, The British Museum DF Dr D.P. Fowler, Jesus College, Oxford DGE Dr David G. Evans, University of Exeter DT Dr David Thomas, University of Sheffield DMPM Dr D.M.P. Mingos, Imperial College EB Dr Elaine Baldwin, University of Salford ECT E.C. Tupper ECW Professor E.C. Wragg, University of Exeter EJB E.J. Borowski, University of Glasgow ES Dr Elizabeth Sirriyeh, University College, Oxford ESa Ellen Sarewitz, Clinical Communications FG Professor Frank Glockling, University of Oxford FT Dr Francis Toase, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst GB Geoff Brown of The Times GE Geoff Endacott GJ Dr Gareth Jones, University of Strathclyde GH Dr Graham Handley GHo Graham Holderness, The Roehampton Institute, London GP Dr Gillian Pocock, Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine, London GS Dr Gillian Sales, King╒s College, University of London GW Greg Woolf, Trinity College, Cambridge HF Hamish Forbes, University of Nottingham HL Howard Loxton IC Ian Chilvers IDC Ian Crofton International Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture, Manchester Metropolitan University IO Professor Ian Oswald, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, (retired) IS Dr Ian Shaw JAB John A. Burton JaG Dr Janet Goodwyn, The Roehampton Institute, London JC John Cunningham JE Dr Jim Edwards, University of Glasgow JEm Dr John Emsley JG John Gillingham, London School of Economics JGo Dr John A.J. Gowlett, University of Liverpool JL Jeremy Lane, University of Sussex JM James Michael, University College London JMa Dr John Marshall, The Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford JO╒B Joanne O╒Brien JP Dr J.L. Pimlott, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst JR James Roberts JRi Jim Rigney, Research Fellow, The Roehampton Institute, London JS John Schofield, Museum of London JSp Dr John Springhall, University of Ulster JT Professor James Thrower, University of Aberdeen JW Dr John Westwood KK Dr Kim Knott, University of Leeds KR Dr Kimberley Reynolds, The Roehampton Institute, London LF Lin Foxhall, University College London LH Dr L. Harrington LS Lesley Stevenson LT Dr Loreto Todd, University of Leeds LW Dr Linda Walker MA Dr Mike Anderson, University of Edinburgh MB Matthew Bennett, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst MBl Professor Michael Black, King╒s College, University of London MC-S Martin Caiger-Smith, Hayward Gallery ME Dr Mark Evans, National Museum of Wales, Cardiff MG Dr Martin Godfrey ML-E Meredith Lloyd-Evans, Biobridge, Cambridge MP Mark Pegram MR Mike Rice MRe Martin Redfern MT Michael J.H. Taylor MV Michael Vickers, The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford MW Martin Wasik, University of Manchester ND Nicole Douek, The British Museum, London NF Dr N.R.E. Fisher, Cardiff University, Wales NFa Dr Nigel Fabb, University of Strathclyde NG-R Dr Nigel Gauk-Roger NH Nick Hooper NHa Nigel Hawkes, Science Editor, The Times NW Dr Nicolas Wyatt, University of Edinburgh OC W. Owen Cole OGO Olwen Glynn Owen PAS Peter A. Smithson, University of Sheffield PB Dr Piotr Bienkowski, Liverpool Museum PBa Dr Philippa Baylis PDS Philip de Souza PE Peta Evelyn, The Victoria and Albert Museum, London PH Dr Peter Hobson, Brunel University PJS Dr Peter J. Smith, The Open University PM Dr Paul Markham PeM Dr Peter Marsh PO Pat Owen PP Paulette Pratt, Clinical Communications PR Peter Reynolds, The Roehampton Institute, London PVC Dr Peter V. Coveney, Schlumberger Cambridge Research Ltd PW Paul Williamson, The Victoria and Albert Museum, London PWa Peter Washington, Middlesex University PWh Dr Philip Whitfield, King╒s College, University of London RA Ronald Alley, formerly of The Tate Gallery, London RC Dr Robert Cook, Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge RCh Professor Raymond Chapman, London School of Economics RD Professor Ronald Draper, University of Aberdeen (retired) RE Dr Roland Emson, King╒s College, University of London RH Rosemary Harris, The Tate Gallery, London RJ Richard Jones RJa Robert Jameson RK Dr Randolph Kent RLG Professor Richard Gregory, University of Bristol RM Dr Roy Macgregor RVP Dr R.V. Parish, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology RY Dr Robert Youngson SC Stephen Chan, University of Kent SD Steve Dawes SE Professor Stephen Edgell, University of Salford SK Sharon Kingman SM Sian Mills SPB Sheila Black SR Samantha Roberts SS Dr Sandra Smith, The Open University SU Dr J.F. Stoddart, P. Ellwood and J.P. Mathias SW Dr Shearer West TC Dr Tim Cornell, University College London TF Dr Trevor Ford, formerly of the University of Leicester TJT Dr T.J. Thomson, University of Edinburgh TM Tim Malyon; text approved by the Institute for the Study of Drug Dependence TMo Trevor Mostyn, Editor of The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa WG Professor W.P. Grant, University of Warwick COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD Dr Colin Brooks, University of Sussex Richard Brown Kim Chesher Clive Carpenter Professor Norman Davies, University of London Oliver Marshall Trevor Mostyn Keith Sword, University of London Richard Tames Dr M. Wheeler, University of London